Coaching has emerged as a critical profession in 20thcentury sports. A coach plays a key role in an athlete’s
success, influencing both the athlete’s performance and
sense of personal fulfillment and, in the case of team
sports, team culture and cohesion. A coach’s primary
responsibility remains the athlete, and the 1979 Bill of
Rights for Young Athletes of the American Coaching Effectiveness Program endorses the philosophical ethos
of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD) Bill of Rights
for Young Athletes, drawn up in 1979. Coaches place
athletes first and winning second. People in sports generally seems to agree with the ethical guidelines of the
Australian Coaching Council (ACC):
Respect the talent of all athletes and seek to
develop their potential
Treat each athlete as a unique individual
Learn as much as you can about your sport and
the disciplines which contribute to athlete
excellence
Make sure that the period of time with you is a
positive experience and self-enhancing for the
athlete Never deceive or mislead the athlete
Be fair and considerate
Be dignified and controlled and teach athletes to
be likewise
Actively discourage the use of ergogenic or behavior-modifying drugs
History
Variants of coaching existed in early times. Ancient
Greece and Rome had informal training for such activities as running, archery, and gladiatorial skills. The
term coach, however, did not enter our vernacular until
the latter 19th century, when “trainers” worked with
teams or individual athletes through private clubs, or
“masters” undertook coaching and instructional activities at private schools or colleges. Professional coaching
positions did not become common until the mid-1900s.
Several factors are associated with the rise in
coaching roles, both amateur and professional: the status of sport, the rise of international and national competition, the development of specialized knowledge
and equipment, the organization of formal coaching
schemes, the inclusion of physical education programs
in educational institutions, and the ever-growing popularity of professional sport.
Coach Education and the Practice of Coaching
Formal coach education programs and accreditation
have evolved since World War II. Canada and Australia
both have internationally recognized coaching courses
that develop common philosophies or areas of content
across hemispherical boundaries. Instruction covers
communication, teaching skills, athletic technique,
biomechanics, sport psychology, leadership and management, nutrition, training, and group dynamics.
Expert advisers may be used to optimize the coaching role. The 1990s display the trend toward increasing
collaboration between coaches and sport psychologists, recognizing that the mental aspect is as critical as
the physical. The sport psychologist emphasizes goal
setting, relaxation skills, visualization, motivation, and
coping and concentration skills. This union is still developing toward a full and complementary partnership
on all levels, including the international level.
Professional associations for coaches, both sport-specific and generic, abound, and programs, conferences,
and journals are readily accessible to coaches for advice
and information on new philosophies and technologies.
Coaches have been the subject of assessment scales, such
as the CBAS SCP, to provide insights from observers and
athletes on coach personalities and practices.
Coaches have many responsibilities, to themselves,
their athletes, and the public. They must respond favorably to the numerous pressures resulting from public expectation, parental concern, athlete diversity, ethical issues, constant technological and physiological
advances, and staffing issues, while maintaining personal satisfaction, self-esteem, and positive relationships in both the personal and professional spheres in
order to function successfully. Since a coach is held liable by others for team/athlete performance results,
outstanding coaches usually receive considerable public recognition and media attention for their coaching
triumphs. They often become part of a virtual sport
folklore that includes well-known figures such as Vince
Lombardi (1913–1970) in American football, Fred
Allen (1920–) in rugby, John Wooden (1910–) in basketball, and Joyce Brown in netball.
A fundamental element of athlete success lies in an
athlete’s complete acceptance of the coach’s philosophies
and actions. Young athletes’ positive sport experiences
are influenced by their coaches. Although the athletes
may become more self-determining and self-directed in
their learning and development, they still value the athlete-coach relationship to the highest levels.
Women and members of certain ethnic groups have
been markedly underrepresented in coaching, reflecting the dominance of white men in sport. For example,
the Black Coaches Association (BCA) in the United
States has suggested that African Americans hold a
disproportionately small number of coaching positions
in the 1990s. For women seeking to coach, the situation is further compounded by the female’s dependency on
male coaches. In addition, the processes of coach selection may utilize informal networks that are currently
oriented toward males or white males. Given the cultural diversity of athletic groups, gender and ethnic
sensitivity would most likely enhance coach-athlete relationships and team dynamics, in addition to fostering
player self-esteem. Following general societal trends,
coaching seems likely to become more diverse; for example, the National Basketball Association is actively
working to increase the number of its African-American coaches.
—ROBIN MCCONNELL
Bibliography: McKee, S. (1994) Coach. Mechanicsburg, PA:
Stackpole Books. Martens, R. (1991). Successful Coaching.
Champaign, IL: Leisure Press. Walton, G. M. (1992) Beyond Winning: The Timeless Wisdom of Great Philosopher
Coaches. Champaign, IL: Leisure Press.