Thomas Jefferson was the third president of the United States and the
main author of the Declaration of Independence (1776). This important document declared America’s original thirteen colonies independent of England and profoundly influenced the future of American
politics. It also expressed Jefferson’s lifelong beliefs in natural rights,
equality, individual liberties, and self-government. Along with being one
of the nation’s founders (political leaders in the time of the American
Revolution [1775–83] who created and signed the Declaration of
Independence and/or the Constitution) and great politicians, Jefferson
was renowned for accomplishments in a remarkable variety of fields.
Jefferson was born on April 13, 1743, at Shadwell, his father’s plantation in central Virginia’s Albemarle County. Jefferson’s father was a
self-educated farmer who became a legislator in the Virginia House of
Burgesses, the legislative body of Virginia’s colonial government under
Great Britain. Jefferson’s mother was the daughter of a wealthy and socially prominent Virginia family that owned slaves. As a child, Jefferson
loved horseback riding and music, but he was also very serious about his
studies, and he had a love of learning that continued throughout his life.
A variety of influences
While at the College of William and Mary, in Williamsburg, Virginia,
Jefferson studied foreign and classical languages, mathematics, and the
natural sciences. He was captivated by the ideas of the Enlightenment, a
philosophic movement of the time that focused on the great power of
human reason to create a rational society of equal individuals. In 1762,
Jefferson began studying law and then started a successful law practice.
This put him in frequent contact with some of the leading men of
Virginia, including Patrick Henry (1736–1799), a fiery advocate of revolution against Great Britain.
On January 1, 1772, Jefferson married Martha Wayles Skelton, the
educated daughter of a wealthy Williamsburg, Virginia, lawyer. With the
land and slaves they inherited from their fathers, the Jeffersons were one
of the wealthiest families in Virginia, guaranteeing Jefferson a role in
Virginia politics. The newlyweds moved into Monticello, a mansion
Jefferson designed, near Charlottesville, Virginia.
Revolutionary political career
In 1769, Jefferson was elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses, where
he served for six years. In 1774, Jefferson joined a group of legislators
who opposed England’s domination over Virginia. They prepared a resolution to support the Boston Tea Party, a protest against the British tax
on tea. The British-appointed governor of Virginia reacted by dissolving
the House, prompting its members to meet to form a new plan of action.
Jefferson submitted a paper, A Summary View of the Rights of British
America, presenting the concept of “natural rights”—that people have
certain rights that transcend civil laws and that cannot be taken away—
which Jefferson would more fully describe in the Declaration of
Independence. In this paper, Jefferson also forcefully denied that the British Parliament held political authority over the colonists, and he demanded free trade and an end to British taxation. The essay was very influential in the revolutionary movement, and Jefferson’s fame spread.
Two years later, Jefferson was appointed to a committee to write the
Declaration of Independence. Although debate continues to this day
over the exact circumstances of its composition, most historians agree
that Jefferson wrote the original draft of the document in June 1776 and
that he then submitted it to two committee members, John Adams
(1735–1826) and Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790), who suggested
minor changes before sending it to the colonial congress. The delegates
debated the text line by line for two and a half days, then adopted it on
July 4, 1776.
American statesman
During the American Revolution, Jefferson
served as a member of the Virginia legislature
and then as the governor of Virginia. Following
the death of his wife in 1782, Jefferson retired
from public office and wrote his only published
book, Notes on the State of Virginia. The book described the physical environment of Virginia and
expressed Jefferson’s belief that the new republic
should remain a nation of independent farmers.
In 1783, Jefferson again served as a delegate
to the Continental Congress (the first national
government of the United States), where he
wrote rules for the governing of a region called
the Northwest Territory, which included present-day Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois,
Wisconsin, and part of Minnesota. Adopted a
few years later as the Northwest Ordinance of
1787, these rules banned slavery in the territory
north of the Ohio River and established how
new states were to be admitted to the Union.
Clashes with Alexander Hamilton
In 1785, Jefferson became minister to France,
and he remained in this position long enough to see the beginning of the French Revolution in 1789. While he was in
France, the U.S. Constitution was written. When he returned to the
United States, he was appointed secretary of state by President George
Washington (1732–1799; served 1789–97). A series of conflicts soon
developed between Jefferson and the secretary of the treasury, Alexander
Hamilton (1755–1804). Jefferson believed that the federal government
should limit itself mainly to foreign affairs and allow states and local governments, led by farmers and workers, to handle local matters. Hamilton
believed in a strong central government under the control of wealthy
merchants and property owners. Their debate caused two groups to
form: The backers of Hamilton became members of the Federalist
Party, or Federalists, and those who supported Jefferson became part of
the Democratic-Republican Party.
The Washington administration adopted Hamilton’s ideas, and in
1793 Jefferson resigned. He ran for the presidency three years later, narrowly losing to his friend, incumbent vice president John Adams. At that
time, the second-place finisher became vice president. Jefferson accepted
the position, but he disagreed with Adams, who was a Federalist, over
many issues. This was especially true with the passage of the Alien and
Sedition Acts of 1798. These acts restricted the voting rights of recent
immigrants and interfered with newspapers that criticized the government. Jefferson thought this seriously limited the freedoms of speech and
the press and was contrary to the Constitution. Throughout his long political career, Jefferson never stopped being a champion of freedom and
liberty.
Becomes third U.S. president
Jefferson defeated Adams in the election of 1800—the first election in
which American voters were given a clear-cut choice between political
parties. Jefferson served two terms as president, during which he cut government spending and simplified the way government was run. But his
major achievement was the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, in which his
administration bought a vast territory from France for $15 million,
nearly doubling the size of the United States.
The question of slavery
Jefferson’s personal life did not always seem to agree with his political
philosophy, especially in regard to slavery. Though he owned about two
hundred slaves, his personal and public papers reveal that he opposed the
institution. He supported legislation to restrict slavery, but he stopped
short of actions that might endanger his political support among slave
owners. A rumor arose during Jefferson’s first term as president that he
had had a sexual relationship with his slave Sally Hemings (1773–1836)
and had fathered several children with her. This story has persisted to the
present day. Scientific testing has shown that descendants of Hemings
may have also been Jefferson’s descendants, but the facts probably will
never be known for certain.
Jefferson retired to Monticello in 1809, having been in politics almost continuously for forty years. He turned his attention to architecture, farming, and education. In 1819, he designed and founded the
University of Virginia, even selecting its faculty and planning its curriculum. During this time, Jefferson renewed his friendship with John
Adams, with whom he had feuded for several years. Both men died on
July 4, 1826, exactly fifty years after signing the Declaration of Independence.