Korea was one of the nations that was divided at the end of World War
II (1939–45) to allow for occupation by various countries of the victorious coalition of Allies (Britain, the Soviet Union, the United States,
France, China, Canada, and Australia). Korea had been under Japanese
control for many years but after World War II was occupied by Russian
and U.S. forces. The country was divided into North and South Korea,
with the thirty-eighth parallel of latitude as the boundary line.
In North Korea, the Soviets organized a communist regime called
the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea. Kim II-sung (1912–1994)
was its first premier (head of government). South Korea was led by
Syngman Rhee (1875–1965) and became known as the Republic of
Korea (ROK).
Both governments wanted to unify Korea, but each wanted to do so
on its own terms. The North would invade the South, then the South
would retaliate, keeping the country in a constant state of conflict. Even
so, U.S. troops pulled out in June 1949. Only a small group of advisers
stayed behind.
South Korea’s army was small and poorly trained, whereas North
Korea had an army of 135,000 men equipped with the most modern
Russian weapons. It also boasted between 150 and 200 combat planes.
South Koreans and some Americans worried that North Korea might attack across the thirty-eighth parallel at any time. On January 12, 1950,
U.S. secretary of state Dean Acheson (1893–1971) announced that
Korea was not part of the defensive perimeter of the United States’s vital
interests in Asia, implying that the United States might not fight over
Korea. This declaration was interpreted by some as an invitation to the communists to invade South Korea.
War begins
Whether or not it was an invitation, the North
Korean army crossed the thirty-eighth parallel to
attack South Korea on June 25, 1950. Because
North Korea invaded without warning, it met
with little resistance, and within thirty-six hours
the army was moving its tanks into the outer
suburbs of Seoul, the capital of South Korea.
To the surprise of the communists, the international community responded to the attack
quickly. The United Nations (UN) Security
Council unanimously passed a resolution calling
for an immediate end to the hostilities and withdrawal of North Korean forces back to their
original position behind the thirty-eighth parallel. North Korea ignored the order, so the UN
Security Council met again on June 27 and recommended that members of the UN assist
South Korea in repelling the attack. President
Harry S. Truman (1884–1972; served
1945–53) committed U.S. air and navel forces
to the struggle in addition to the ground forces
already stationed in Japan.
But this was not enough to keep the communists from advancing. By the end of the month, more than half the
ROK army had been destroyed, and U.S. forces were forced to fight as
they retreated south. Fifteen other nations sent in troops. On September
15, 1950, General Douglas MacArthur (1880–1964), commander in
chief of the Far East and supreme commander of the UN forces, launched
a surprise attack not from the port of Pusan, but from the landing at
Inchon, the west-coast port just outside of Seoul. North Korean forces
were expecting a land attack, not an assault from the water. MacArthur’s
strategy forced the communists back across the thirty-eighth parallel.
Turning point
What happened next determined the future of Korea. The UN coalition
had to decide whether to pursue the communist forces across the thirtyeighth parallel. The United States wanted a complete victory, so Truman gave MacArthur permission to cross the boundary. MacArthur had already decided this would be his plan, and the first crossings took place on
October 1. By late November, UN and ROK troops had forced the enemy
to the river boundary between North Korea and communist China.
China came to the aid of North Korea, making good on its warning
that it would not allow North Korea to be invaded. Thousands of
Chinese soldiers sided with their communist brothers, and UN troops
began to withdraw. By July 1951, a stalemate (deadlock) was reached.
The fighting settled into trench warfare, with each side digging in. The
bloody battles continued for two years, with more than one million
Americans serving in Korea.
Negotiations
While troops were fighting, negotiations were initiated by the communists. The talks were repeatedly called off because the communists were using them to spread propaganda and to make the fighting last as long
as possible. Meanwhile, the United States was getting frustrated with the
deadlock on the battlefield. In 1953, President Truman left office and
was replaced with Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890–1969; served
1953–61), a Republican who won support by promising to go to Korea
if elected. He kept his promise, but the visit had little if any influence on
the peace talks.
An agreement was finally reached and signed on July 27, 1953. It
called for a cease-fire and the withdrawal of both armies about a mile
from the existing battle line, which was just below the thirty-eighth parallel. The treaty also called for the creation of a Neutral Nations
Supervisory Commission to enforce the terms of the truce. A conference
would be held to settle all questions, including the future of Korea and
the fate of prisoners of war who refused to return home. In the following months, the UN repatriated (sent home) more than 70,000 North
Korean and communist prisoners. In return, they received only 3,597
Americans, 7,848 South Koreans, and 1,315 prisoners of other nationalities. The conference was never held, and tensions remained high between North and South Korea.
The Korean War lasted just over three years and cost the United
States 140,000 casualties (dead and wounded) and $22 billion. It prevented communism from spreading into South Korea and proved that
the United States would fight to contain communism.
With the Korean War, U.S. policy shifted from war for total victory
to limited war with no demand for total victory.