Federalism is the doctrine of government under which power is shared
between numerous subnational governments and a central power.
Federalism can be organized in a number of ways. The American federal
system consists of state governments united under the federal government. Although the structure of government is well defined, the division
of power between the governments is not clearly outlined. The balance
of power between federal and state authorities therefore has been a constant source of debate within the system. Evolution of American federalism
Four distinct phases of federalism exist in the
short history of the United States. American federalism has roots extending back to the governments of the founding British colonies.
Established to take care of local issues, each
colonial government was responsible to the
English crown. Each colony operated independently and established its own local laws and relationship to the Crown. When the Crown’s rule
became unbearable and ran against the wishes of
colonists, they united in common interest and
rebelled. The American Revolution (1775–83)
marked the birth of federalism in America.
During the American Revolution, worries
that a central government might become tyrannical created resistance to organizing one. It was
apparent, however, that a central government
would help the fight for independence by uniting and coordinating state efforts. Nevertheless,
the former colonies had no interest in abandoning the independent nature of local rule. Under the Articles of Confederation, they united to
form a federal government, but it was given very little power. Its
Congress could not regulate commerce, raise an army, or levy taxes. As a
result, it was barely able to function, and the revolutionary cause operated weakly as a result.
Lessons from the balance of power under which the central government had little influence over the independent states led to the creation
of a new government. The government based on the Articles of
Confederation was abandoned, and a stronger federal government was
defined by the U.S. Constitution, which extended certain privileges to
the federal government. Congress could now levy taxes, coin money,
raise and maintain a military, declare war, and regulate commerce. Other
privileges were reserved for the state governments.
The Constitution is largely vague about how governing power
should be shared between the federal and state governments. As a result,
much of the nation’s history has included political struggles in Congress
as federal lawmakers have tried to establish whether the state or federal government has overriding control of an issue.
State governmental officials, too, have worked
to answer this question through their political
conduct.
The breaking point
The rapid growth of the United States in the
early nineteenth century accentuated the issue
of state versus federal power. The new
Constitutional government was vague enough
to allow both the state and federal governments
to maintain a great deal of control. This arrangement is sometimes called dual federalism, and it
worked only briefly. As the nation’s territory rapidly expanded and more states joined the Union,
debates escalated concerning the rights of states
to govern themselves.
The institution of slavery within new territories was especially agitating. Would the federal
government prevent the expansion of slavery, or
would states maintain the power to choose slavery over the human rights of slaves and the abolition movement’s call for freedom? This issue
alone brought the young Union to the breaking
point several times throughout the 1800s.
As the debates raged about slavery, varied
preferences for a strong federal government or
for states’ rights grew. Northern commercial interests were best served by a strong central government. Southern states, hoping to preserve
slavery or expand it, struggled for stronger state
rule. Both regions had strong economic reasons
for their positions, and compromise was difficult to achieve. The differences sparked debates among lawmakers and finally led to the secession
of the southern states. The American Civil War (1861–65) stemmed in
part from the nation’s struggle to define the balance of governmental power in American federalism. Contemporary federalism
With a northern victory in the Civil War, a strong central government
gained the upper hand. States’ rights were minimized as federal power
grew. The federal government defined national citizenship and, in theory, imposed limits on the power of states to violate any civil rights that
national citizenship granted.
State resistance to these policies was strong, but economic developments such as interstate business made a strong central government attractive to commercial interests. All states had to adhere to the same laws,
and businesses operated across state lines with more ease. Many state
governments, however, found ways to maintain their independence and
to work around disagreeable policies.
A strong federal government proved to be beneficial to all states during the Great Depression (1929–41). The government established federal agencies and bureaus to set national policies in an effort to bring
economic relief and stability. Under these programs, states deferred to
national authorities and embraced the relief efforts. The success of the
federal programs set a trend for a strong federal government that leads
the policies of state governments.
The trend of growing federal power continued into the twentieth
century under Republican and Democratic presidencies and Congresses.
Some Americans fear that the country’s federalism has become unbalanced—that the federal government has become too strong. Some speculate that a new phase of federalism is necessary and see indicators that
politicians are seeking a new balance.