The relationship between sport and aggression has
been studied extensively for decades, yet investigators
still have only an incomplete understanding of the link
between the two. That there is a link seems certain, and
researchers in various disciplines continue trying to refine their understanding of it in ways that will illuminate both sport and society.
In the first half of the 20th century, many psychologists assumed that participation in sports might allow
individuals to vent their aggressive tendencies. Generally, these assumptions arose from the view that aggression is an internal drive based on frustration
and/or instinct. However, more recent research shows
the opposite—participation in sports is likely to increase an individual’s aggression.
Sport psychologists distinguish between hostile
and instrumental aggression. The primary purpose of
hostile aggression is to inflict physical or psychological injury on another; the main aim of instrumental
aggression is to attain an approved goal, such as winning a game. These two forms of aggression can be
distinguished clearly in most sport situations, although not necessarily in extreme contact sports such
as boxing and ice hockey. Recent research suggests
that instrumental aggression in sport may spill over
into hostile aggression outside of sport, for example,
male athletes involved in sexual assault against
women.
History
Historically, some argued that sport developed as a constraint on aggression, or at least as a means to channel
aggression into culturally acceptable forms. Others
have contended that sports do not necessarily increase
aggression, but rather reflect and enhance the dominant values and attitudes of the broader culture.
Yet another school of thought has proposed that
sport creates a separate moral sphere, distinct from the
real world, in which the goal of winning is more important than the rules of the game. Others consider
that when athletes are overly aggressive; they are overconforming to what they see as acceptable within the
sport. Display of machismo, playing with pain, or intentionally injuring an opponent may be “grounded in
athletes’ uncritical acceptance of and commitment to
what they have been told by important people in their
lives ever since they began participating in competitive
programs. Where winning is valued above all else, athletes may use aggression to show their total commitment to sport or to winning in sport.
Aggression and the Individual
Individuals who participate in sports seem to exhibit
higher levels of aggression than those who do not.
However, this may be because sports attract people
who are naturally more aggressive than nonathletes.
Some sports are more likely to be associated with
violence and inappropriate aggression. When provoked, for example, participants in contact sports reveal much higher levels of aggression than those in
noncontact sports. Research also shows that aggression
may give players an edge when used early in a contest,
or they may show aggression if they fail in the sport.
Other factors also influence aggression during sports
events. For example, the presence of officials in organized sports increases the number of fouls since the
athletes assume it is the referees’ job to control inappropriate aggression.
Studies of martial arts suggest that sport participation does not necessarily promote aggression. For example, one study showed that among 13-to-17-yearold delinquents, the group that was taught the
philosophical elements of Tae Kwon Do—respect for
others, maintaining a sense of responsibility, for example—along with the physical component lowered their
aggression levels, compared to those who were not
taught the philosophy or engaged in activities other
than Tae Kwon Do.
Aggression and the Group
Some scholars have argued that games are models of
culturally relevant activities and provide the greatest
opportunity to practice and to learn these activities.
American football is an unmistakable model of warfare,
for example, with its “men in the trenches” (offensive and defensive linemen), “field generals” (quarterbacks), efforts by teams to move the ball into “enemy
territory” and, ultimately, scoring by “invading” the opponent’s end zone. Cross-cultural studies too show a
positive association between the existence of combative sports and the prevalence of warfare in particular
cultures. Not all sports fit this model, though. Baseball,
in contrast, cannot be so directly linked with any single
culturally relevant activity, although running, clubbing,
and missile throwing were all important activities in
human evolutionary history.
Aggression is appropriate, even essential for success
in war, but what happens to individuals with heightened levels of aggression in peacetime or when there is
no active war in which to channel their aggression? Recently, this question—still controversial—has been
raised about violence toward women. Several studies
indicate that athletes are disproportionately represented among rapists and others who abuse women
physically. Other investigators suggest that sports contribute to male dominance by linking maleness with
acceptable aggression while belittling women and their
activities. Some researchers believe that athletes are
unfairly stereotyped because they are more visible and
are typically held to higher standards.
Aggression and Fan Violence
Violence by sport spectators or fans has become an issue of considerable concern. Soccer (association football) hooliganism in Great Britain has received much
attention as have violent confrontations between European soccer fans. What is it about sports that excites
spectators to violent aggression? One theory is that it
directly results from observing athletes’ aggression; another links it to fans’ desire to establish their own social
identity; a third proposes that spectator violence is a
kind of ritual.
Drugs, especially alcohol, are another common element in spectator aggression. During the 1995 U.S. National Football League season, a national audience was
treated to a game-long spectacle of fans throwing
snowballs and ice at players, coaches, and officials on
the field, as well as at each other, during a game between the New York Giants and the San Diego Chargers. Alcoholic beverages were subsequently banned
from Giants Stadium for the next home game to be
played there. Drugs have also been implicated in aggressiveness by players. In particular, steroids, usually
taken surreptitiously by athletes, appear to heighten
aggressiveness.
Aggression, Sport, and Mass Media
Instant replays have brought an interesting but chilling
phenomenon in modern sport spectatorship. Scoring
plays or other exciting or exceptional plays are commonly replayed. But also commonly replayed are tactics that involve exceptional aggressiveness, such as a
“good hit” or a particularly devastating down-field
block in American football. This replaying occurs even
when the violent moves have little apparent effect on
the outcome of the game or the particular play. Aggressive acts that lead to actual violence—fights among
players—are frequently replayed or rebroadcast on
sports shows. Spectators seem to enjoy exhibitions of
aggression and even violence, while players in many
sports believe that aggressive play is instrumental in
winning.
Precisely how sports and aggression are linked is
unclear, but that they are linked seems certain. Sports
may be one way to teach young people how and when
to use violent forms of aggressive behavior. Young athletes observe the behavior of role models and learn
from interactions with coaches, parents, and others.
This may well have long-lasting consequences for individuals and for society.
Can there be sport without increased aggression?
Studies suggest that sport could be reformed so that it
would not necessarily lead to increases in aggression.
Spectators and players both would experience sport in
a different way. Nevertheless, it seems likely that sport
could be enjoyed without the promotion of inappropriate aggression.
—ANDREW W. MIRACLE, GARRY CHICK, AND JOHN W. LOY
See also Violence.
Bibliography: Buss, A. H. (1961) The Psychology of Aggression. New York: Wiley. McPherson, Barry D., James E. Curtis, and John W. Loy. (1989) The Social Significance of
Sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Messner, Michael
A., and Donald F. Sabo. (1994) Sex, Violence and Power in
Sports: Rethinking Masculinity. Freedom, CA: Crossing
Press. Russell, G.W. (1993) The Social Psychology of Sport.
New York: Springer-Verlag.