The thirteen British colonies in America fought the American
Revolution (1775–83) to become independent from Great Britain. (See
Thirteen Colonies.) As a result, a new nation was born, the United
States of America.
Taxation without representation
By the 1760s, the British colonies in America had developed into thirteen individual territories with their own economic and political systems.
For the most part, the British Parliament and monarchy had refrained
from being involved in most aspects of colonial life since the early 1700s.
The British maintained and managed their economic interests in the
colonies, but they also allowed the colonies to govern themselves to a
large extent.
The outbreak of the French and Indian War (1754–63) changed
the status of the colonies in 1754. The British provided troops to support and protect the colonists in the conflict against the French and the
Indians. The war lasted until 1763 and depleted the British treasury.
After the war, the British Parliament sought to replenish its treasury.
Taxes had never been applied to the colonies, but Parliament decided it
was necessary for the colonies to share the responsibility of paying war
debts. Parliament enacted a series of tax measures over the next ten years
that sparked outrage throughout the colonies. Although the vast majority of the colonial population was loyal to British rule, they had grown
used to levying their own taxes through their own governments. As the
colonists had no representation in Parliament, they felt they had no duty
to pay taxes to Great Britain.
Parliament was firm about its decision to tax the colonies, however,
and the series of acts placed on the colonies were strict. Parliament attempted to control colonial trade and passed restrictions on colonial
money. It taxed imports in America through measures like the Tea Act
(1763) and the Sugar Act (1764). Another set of laws included the
Stamp Act (1765), the Declaratory Act (1766), and the Townshend
Acts (1767). These laws placed duties (taxes on imports) on a wide variety of goods, such as legal documents, glass, and lead.
Tensions rise
The colonies had developed independently over time. Their governments,
economies, and populations were noticeably different. As a result, the
colonies often disagreed on policy matters and rarely united in a cause.
The actions of the British Parliament began to unite the colonies in
common resentment of British rule. The Stamp Act particularly angered
the colonists, as it seemed to affect everyone. Printers were among those
most affected, however, and they aroused public opposition through the
publication of newspapers, editorials, and pamphlets.
The colonists resisted Britain’s actions in a variety of ways. Public
criticism appeared in print over Parliament’s taxation without the consent of colonial representatives. Merchants and
laborers created the Sons of Liberty, a militarylike club. Ordinary colonists harassed tax collectors, attended public protest meetings, and
participated in boycotts of British goods. In
protest, colonists dumped loads of tea into the
Boston Harbor in December 1773, an event
called the Boston Tea Party.
Increased colonial resistance led to enactment of the Coercion Acts in 1774, by which
Parliament restricted the power of local governments. When Britain dissolved the
Massachusetts legislature, closed Boston
Harbor, shut down colonial courts, and quartered, or housed, British troops in private
homes, the colonists were inspired to work together as they never had before. Reaction spread
far beyond Massachusetts, and some Americans
began to consider military resistance.
The colonies organize and fight
In 1774, delegates from the colonies gathered at
the First Continental Congress to evaluate the
level of discontent among all the colonies. (See
Continental Congress, First.) The Congress
sent a petition to the British government seeking
a resolution of their complaints. Though not all
Americans agreed that greater resistance was
necessary, some colonists began to prepare for
war.
Historians generally agree that prior to the outbreak of the
Revolution, only one-third of the colonists actively supported military
action and independence. The remaining two-thirds were either
Loyalists faithful to British rule, or uncommitted either way.
Tensions between the colonists and the British turned hostile on
April 19, 1775. British troops went to Lexington and Concord in
Massachusetts to collect weapons and capture rebels. (See Battle of
Lexington and Concord.) When the British met armed resistance from
citizen militias, the conflict became violent, and the American
Revolutionary War began.
The colonies united with a vote for independence at the Second
Continental Congress in the summer of 1775. (See Continental
Congress, Second.) Colonial delegates worked to establish an independent government under the Articles of Confederation. Although the
document provided a unifying government, it proved to be weak: It was
unable to supply the funds, supplies, and military staffing that could
have made for a swifter war.
American victory was due in great part to the strength of command
and leadership from General George Washington (1732–1799). Against
the odds, Washington overcame problems posed by political squabbles, a
weak federal government, inexperienced militias, and lack of supplies.
Though it struggled at first, the Continental Army was transformed into
a disciplined and effective force under Washington’s supervision.
The other key to American victory was the vital support of France.
In May 1779, France and America signed a treaty that provided an alliance and loans for the American cause. Spain and the Netherlands also
joined the fight on behalf of the Americans. The combined efforts of
these countries finally brought military victory in October 1781. At the
Battle of Yorktown in Virginia, British General Lord Cornwallis
(1738–1805) surrendered. The war formally ended with the Treaty of
Paris in 1783.