The creation and adornment of items with the use of a needle. Needlework can be divided
into two categories: utilitarian, or “plain,” needlework consisting of all items necessary
for daily survival such as clothing, undergarments, household linens, and bedcoverings;
and nonutilitarian, or “fancy,” needlework, which is purely decorative and created for
enjoyment or display within the home.
Needlework was the core of the early American household. It was done primarily by
women, either alone or in a group, and it represented one of their few accepted outlets for
creative expression. Since little written history focused on the lives and experiences of
women, needlework became a “writing” of sorts, through which women told their
personal stories. Throughout American history, a strong connection existed between
women’s lives and their needlework; as their roles in society changed, so did their
needlework.
To the earliest settlers, needlework signified the very survival of the family. After all,
members of the family were dependent on the woman of the house to weave the fabric,
spin and dye the yarn, sew clothes and blankets, knit stockings and scarves—all by
hand—to keep them warm and clothed. Few examples of this early plain needlework
survive because the pieces were so valuable that they were used until they literally wore
out. Even then, the scraps were saved to make pieced quilts.
Examples of decorative needlework have survived more often because they were not
meant for everyday use, but for display They were often framed or, as in the case of
“best” quilts, they were folded and put away and rarely brought out of storage. Skill in
decorative needlework showcased a woman’s talent and her eligibility for marriage.
These skills were passed down from mother to daughter, and later were taught at girls’
academies. A young woman would first learn the basic, plain stitches necessary for
overseeing a household, then steadily progress to more difficult stitches. But no matter
how adept she became at decorative stitchery, she could never forget her first lessons in plain needlework because someday her household would depend on them.
The earliest examples of needlework in America closely resemble English traditions,
both in design and technique. English settlers brought their needlework with them to the
New World in an attempt to retain some of the culture of the homeland they were leaving
behind. In Europe, needlework had been a domestic art as far back as the Renaissance,
when it was first added to a girl’s basic education.
Crewelwork is embroidery of a two-ply worsted wool yarn, called “crewel,” on linen.
In early America, such embroidery closely resembled traditional English crewelwork,
which dated back to the 1500s. Common motifs include vines, flowers, leaping stags, and the tree of life. American women copied these designs from the original crewelwork they
brought with them from England or referred to current European pattern books. While
crewel yarn was first imported from London to Boston, the colonists soon began to spin
and dye the yarn on their own. Yarns dyed with natural earth tones, such as greens and
rusts, contrasted well against the natural linen background. Another variation featured
yarns of all shades of indigo blues.
Crewelwork was used to decorate many things, from curtains to petticoats, but was
most common on bed “furniture,” the heavy cloths hung around the bed to provide extra
warmth in drafty colonial homes. Elaborate crewelwork designs showed respect for this
important item in their homes and the desire of the women to beautify their surroundings.
Canvaswork was another form of early American needlework in the English tradition.
Canvaswork is embroidery stitches of thin wool or silk yarn worked with a needle over
the entire surface of a canvas background. Each stitch covered only one thread of the
canvas, which at that time was more than fifty threads per inch—today’s needlepoint
material has only about twenty threads per inch. The tight tiny stitches allowed the
worker to achieve both a durable textile and intricate details.
Canvaswork was used for seat covers, book covers, fire screens, and pincushions.
Large scenes showing men and women partaking of outdoor leisure activities were also
popular. These scenes, which often took more than a year to complete, were sometimes
referred to as tapestrywork because of their similarity to European tapestries. One version
popular in the Boston area in the mid-18th century was called the “Fishing Lady.” In the
scene, an elegantly dressed woman sits beside a stream, gracefully holding a fishing pole.
Examples of this scene are thought to have all been done by students of one Boston
needlework-design teacher. Sometimes all canvaswork scenes are referred to as “Fishing
Lady,” even if the lady herself is not depicted.
By the end of the 18th century, the European look of crewel-and canvaswork was
going out of style as America began to define itself. An American style was beginning to
appear in needlework—simpler, more creative, less structured, and not married to an
ideal technical perfection from which European needlework rarely strayed.
The early years of the 19th century saw the rise of girls’ academies, to which all
families that could, sent their daughters. These academies taught young girls important
feminine skills such as deportment, dancing, and especially needlework. A finished
needlework piece, or “accomplishment,” acted as a final exam or diploma and was
proudly displayed in the family home as a testament to both the girl’s talent and the
refinement of the household.
Samplers were one of the most common needlework projects done in academies. In a
practical sense, samplers are a record of stitches to which a woman can refer back should
she ever forget a stitch. During the time of the academies, however, samplers became
purely decorative. In Europe samplers tended to be long and thin, with records of stitches
in rows. In America, they become shorter and wider, with fanciful borders and text
added.
Samplers were usually done in silk thread on a natural linen background, although
occasionally a colored background was used. Young girls between the ages of five and
nine would begin with simple alphabet samplers. As their skills improved, they would
move on to more difflcult ones. Between the ages of twelve and eighteen is when girls
would usually complete elaborate samplers, which included houses, landscapes, borders, and lengthy text. Texts were often biblical passages or proverbs proclaiming feminine
virtues and the benefits of industriousness and piety. All samplers would include the name and age of the girl and the date of its completion. A girl might expect to
complete two to three samplers during her tenure at an academy.
Once a girl had mastered the sampler, she would move on to more difficult work,
called silk-on-silk pictorial embroidery. This included scenes created entirely of silk
embroidery on a silk background and represented the most advanced schoolgirl work.
Designs were flrst sketched on the background. Then the entire surface was embroidered,
leaving space for faces, arms, and sometimes skies that were later painted with
watercolor for a natural effect.
Perhaps the most popular silk-on-silk pictorial was the mourning scene. Mourning
scenes followed a common design of bereaved mourners in Empire dress standing around
a tombstone or an urn on which the deceased’s name and age and any other vital
information has been written. A willow tree, a common symbol of death, was often
included in these pictures as well.
Other typical motifs included classical or patriotic scenes, biblical stories, and
printwork, which involved embroidery of black and grey silk on a white background so
the look of a print engraving could be achieved. The girl who could successfully execute
a fine piece of printwork was truly skilled and was held in great esteem both in the school
and in her community. Printwork was tedious and time consuming, more popular in
England but also done in America.
As the 19th century progressed, educational reform began to affect needlework’s role
in the American woman’s life. While girls’ academies still flourished, the emphasis now
turned to true academic study, and needlework instruction fell behind. Soon, needlework
skills ceased to be such a definitive indication of a girl’s eligibility for marriage. But
while the fine quality of stitchery declined, needlework itself found new significance in
the Victorian woman’s household.
To the Victorians, home was a special sanctuary. It was the sole responsibility of the
woman of the house to create an environment in which good citizens could be raised. Her
needlework, or fancywork as it was called, allowed her to decorate and accessorize each
room, thereby creating a happy home environment.
Fancywork was created for every room and every purpose. Not restricted to wool or
silk thread, the Victorians made use of beads, ribbons, sequins, and lace. Pillows and
bookmarks alike were garnished with stitches. An embroidered lambrequin might be used
to cover the harsh edge of a mantle, while a cross-stitched motto, such as “Lead Us Not
into Temptation,” hung in the hallway to instill proper moral tone.
Berlin work, a fad started in Germany, became popular in the mid-19th century. Berlin
work is embroidery of wool yarn on canvas. It differs from the canvaswork of the 18th
century in that the canvas is of a wider mesh so the stitches were not as delicate, and in it
the Victorian aesthetic of bold patterns and bright colors is particularly evident.
Preprinted designs on graph paper showed women exactly where the stitches should go
and what colors should be used. This let even those women who had not benefited from
an academy education create beautiful pieces. Thousands of designs were available from
which to choose, among them bouquets of flowers, political portraits such as Washington
or Lincoln, and bucolic country scenes.
Late-century needlework included trends such as crazywork, a style that mirrored the
Victorians’ love for asymmetry. Initially composed of patches of irregular shapes and
various sizes in fabrics such as silk, satin, and velvet, crazywork was further embellished
with embroidery, applique, and even paint. It was thought to be a result of the strong
Eastern influence in America attributable most likely to the Japanese screens, cracked
glaze pottery, and other artifacts exhibited at the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition in
1876. Small examples of crazywork include slippers, footstool covers, and even
something called a “crazy cushion,” which young girls would pass among themselves so each could add a patch. Large examples of crazywork include crazy quilts, which were
made throughout the country.
Because of the rise of women’s magazines in the second half of the 19th century, such
as Godey’s Ladies Book and later the Ladtes’Home Journal, needlework was now
accessible to a much wider audience. The Victorian era in America was really the first
time needlework crossed both class and regional boundaries. Until this time, decorative
needlework had been done mostly by women of means who could afford both leisure
time and the necessary materials. The Industrial Revolution brought about an increased
wealth to the middle class as well as more affordable materials. This meant that more
people could participate in needlework.
Much of early American needlework was concentrated in New England and MidAtlantic areas. This was due in part to the North’s climate being more conducive to long
hours indoors, and to the rural nature of the South, where communication was slower and
home schooling the norm for a longer period of time. Improvements in transportation and
communication, as well as subscriptions to national periodicals, however, brought the
country’s population closer together. Women from all over, even pioneer women, could
keep abreast of the latest needlework trends.
The mass appeal of needlework would begin to decline as the 20th century neared.
Increased educational and work opportunities for women took them away from the home
in larger numbers. Technological advances such as the sewing machine made social calls
with needlework in tow—a popular convention during the 19th century—impossible.
Soon it ceased being a social activity. Affordable manufactured clothing and household
linens also eliminated the need for women to make these items themselves.
Needlework continued as a hobby. Immigration in the early 20th century brought
ethnic groups who established their own needlework traditions in their communities just
as the early English settlers had done. Although needlework as a social activity for the
majority of American women stopped, the needlework done by women throughout the
previous centuries of American history represents the largest and most important
contribution by women to American decorative arts.
Marie Luise Proeller
References
Harbeson, Georgiana Brown. 1938. American Needlework: The History of Decorative Stitchery and
Embroidery from the Late 16th to the 20th Century. New York: Bonanza.
Ring, Betty. 1993. Girlhood Embroidery: American Samplers and Pictoral Needlework, 1650–
1850. NewYork: Alfred Knopf.
Swan, Susan Burrows. 1977. Plain and Fancy: American Women and Their Needlework, 1700–
1850. New York: Holt, Reinhart, and Winston.
Vincent, Margaret. 1988. The Ladies Worktable: Domestic Needlework in 19th Century America.
Allentown, PA: Allentown Art Museum.
Weissman, Judith Reiter, and Wendy Lavitt. 1987. Labors of Love: America’s Textiles and
Needlework, 1650–1930. New York: Alfred Knopf.