This leads us to believe that they consumed some sort of hallucinogenic drug or herb before going into battle, which produced the effect of a seemingly endless supply of energy and immunity to pain, and finally caused the symptoms of withdrawal. Given that they were difficult to control—frequently attacking even their comrades in arms—they were outlawed before the end of the Viking era.
The Ships
Being native to lands with an abundance of fjords, rivers, and lakes, it was easier for Vikings to travel by ship than by land. The design of their ships was remarkable, thanks to knowledge acquired and passed on for many generations. At sea this afforded them a clear advantage over other cultures. Their ships had many variations, but there were two main types: warships and transports.
Their warship was known as the Drakkar, and it was perfectly suited for incursions, being fast and easy to steer. It was commonly between 17 and 27 meters long and 2.5 to 5 meters wide at the midship. Space was at a premium onboard, so each Viking carried only a chest where he kept his possessions. This also meant there wasn’t any type of cover, even in foul weather, which says a lot about the Vikings’ ability to withstand less than comfortable living conditions. A dismountable mast and rectangular sail were used whenever possible. When wind was lacking, or when navigating near a coast or traveling up a river, the travelers took turns rowing. Depending on the Drakkar’s size, it needed anywhere from 20 to 50 oarsmen. Fully loaded, the Drakkar would draw less than one meter of water, which gave the Vikings the ability to strike practically any coast, without the requirement of a port. And it was even light enough to be dragged over land in order to circumvent a blockaded river or to navigate across to a different one.
The Knöörr was a bigger ship, suitable for transporting goods and even entire families on colonizing voyages. It had a central platform where animals, wood, or other necessities could be transported.
One interesting characteristic shared by all Viking ships was an identical bow and stern. This meant that if they needed to turn back, they simply rowed in the other direction.
From the Sagas, we conclude that only wealthy Vikings had sufficient capital for the construction of Drakkars and Knöörrs. Thus, ship owners usually were nobles, or commoners who had amassed great fortunes through trading or raids. The size, quality, and quantity of ships depended on the Viking’s level of wealth. Accordingly, Vikings of less stature could only afford smaller ships suitable for fishing or short voyages.
The Viking Era Begins
The year 793 saw the first documented pillage by Scandinavian warriors. The monastery of Lindisfarne, on the eastern coast of England, was ransacked by Vikings sailing out of Norway. Setting the tone for many incursions to come, the Vikings rowed their ships onto the beach, taking the area by surprise. The monastery was overrun; anyone standing in their way was promptly slaughtered. Others were taken prisoners to be sold as slaves. The attackers took anything of value they could find and quickly rowed away.
This incident is commonly regarded as the beginning of the Viking era, as historians refer to the time period ranging from 793 to 1100. During this time the Viking culture expanded into areas surrounding the Scandinavian states, even making contact with regions as far away as the Caspian Sea in the east and the coasts of North America in the west.
Raids, such as the one that took place at Lindisfarne, were organized during assemblies. One Viking usually organized the whole affair, brought together the ships necessary for the raid, and recruited the right number of men. These raids usually took place during the summer, when the weather was more favorable for navigation. Before sailing every Viking was required to swear loyalty and complete obedience to the leader of the raid. Upon returning, the loot was divided, half for the organizer, half for the crew.
Thus, raids and exploration voyages could be organized in this manner by any Viking, provided he could bring together enough ships, supplies, and men. But there were also many cases in which noblemen, acting on their king’s orders, mounted enormous raids. One was in 968, when Jarl Gundraed, in command of 8000 men and 100 ships, led a Danish expedition into Spain. Obviously, the number of casualties left behind and booty taken were many times larger than those of the typical small, hit and run operations.
In the years following the Lindisfarne incident, Norwegian Vikings dominated parts of northern England, Scotland and Ireland, while the southern English coasts were harassed by Vikings based in Denmark. Dublin and York became important Viking trade centers.
It was only natural that after settling in the British Isles these explorers would travel to other areas, always in search of new lands. Thus, sailing to the northwest, Vikings discovered, and permanently settled, Iceland.
Around the year 980 Erik Thorvaldsson, better known as Erik the Red, having been temporarily exiled from Iceland for the murder of two fellow Vikings, sailed west along with his family. He searched for an unexplored island someone had seen in the past. He found it, named it Greenland, and promptly built a farm in an area he called Bratthalid, near present day Julianehab. He remained there for three seasons and upon returning to Iceland told his fellow Vikings about the discovery. He described endless rolling green pastures, perfect for raising cattle, as well as an abundance of fish, whales and seals. Hundreds of fellow Vikings went back with him and settled there.
In the year 1000, a Viking traveling from Iceland to Greenland was thrown off course by a storm. He ended up in the vicinity of an unknown land farther west. When he finally arrived in Greenland he narrated his ordeal and described the territory he had seen. Leif Eriksson, son of Erik the Red, decided to explore this new land. He took a ship and a crew of 35 men and sailed west. Following the directions previously given to him, he found this new land and traveled down along the coast. He named three areas according to their predominant elements: Helluland (Rocky land), Markland (Land of forests) and Vinland (Land of grapes). He disembarked in this last area and settled there temporarily. A large house and a few other structures were built by Leif and his men. According to the Sagas this land was fertile, had good weather and plenty of wildlife. Its rivers and lakes were teeming with salmon and other species of fish.
Shortly Leif and his men returned home, with their ship loaded with wood, which was scarce in Greenland. A year later his father, Erik the Red, died. Leif took over the administration of the farm, and was never able to return to Vinland. Two years later his brother, Thorvald, organized a second expedition to the newly discovered land. He and his men spent two years exploring the coasts of the surrounding area. They also constructed more dwellings. On one occasion they stumbled upon a group of natives, which the Vikings named skraeling, and a skirmish ensued. Thorvald was mortally wounded and became the first European to be buried in America. His men shortly returned to Greenland carrying a full load of wood and grapes.
A third expedition was later organized by another of Erik the Red’s sons, Thorstein. Sadly, their ship was thrown off course by a storm and all on board, except for a woman, perished.
A fourth expedition was organized by another Viking by the name of Thorfinn Karlsefni. Traveling in two ships, this group stayed for three years in the same dwellings Leif Eriksson and his crew had built. In one occasion they were approached by natives who attempted to exchange furs for Viking swords. Apparently the Vikings refused and had some problems as a result, although not as severe as in Thorvald’s case. During their stay in Vinland, Snorri, son of Thorfinn and his wife Grudrid, was born. This is the first documented birth of a European in America. Later, Thorfinn and his group returned to Greenland, again with their respective cargo of wood.
The fifth and last documented voyage to Vinland was organized by Freydis, Leif’s sister. They traveled in two ships, one carrying Vikings from Greenland, the other from Iceland. Their one-year stay was not disturbed by the visit of natives, although it was far from uneventful. Apparently Freydis created a hostile climate between Greenlanders and Icelanders. Quarrels over unimportant issues between the two groups were common. In the end she convinced her husband and crew to get rid of the Greenlanders. According to the Sagas she single-handedly took care of the opposing group’s women, chopping them to pieces with an axe. They then took both ships, with their complement of wood, and returned to Greenland.
Apparently, the Vikings never returned to America after the fifth voyage. The era of Viking expansionism was at an end. Their pillaging incursions became less frequent; the fact that Christianity and its ideals quickly enveloped the Viking culture may be an important factor in this change of attitude. Trading centers in England and Ireland were abandoned, along with the settlements in Greenland. Many of the early invaders settled in parts of France, Finland, and Russia, mixing with the local population. Most of their pagan culture and language were forgotten in time. Only in Iceland, where the Sagas are still read without requiring translation, does the original Nordic language survive.