Track races tend to take center stage in the repertoire of
events making up track and field competitions. In outdoor competitions these events generally range from
100 meters to 10,000 meters. Flat races (i.e., without
hurdles), which lie between these extremes, are the 200
meter, 400 meter, 800 meter, 1,500 meter, and 5,000
meter. Indoors, the shortest distance is usually 60 meters and the longest 3,000 meters. Track running is
usually categorized on the basis of the distance run;
hence, sprints are up to 400 meters, middle distances
from 800 meters to 3,000 meters, and long distances
from 5,000 meters up.
The number of events the International Amateur
Athletics Federation (IAAF, the international governing
body) recognizes for world record purposes has diminished considerably over the last half century. With a
growing societal emphasis on speed, there has been a
decline in running for distance—the furthest distance
that can be run in a given time. Events such as the onehour run are rarely run today. Apart from the 1 mile,
events measured in imperial units are no longer widely
practiced.
History
The Greeks and Romans engaged in track racing, using
the stade, a distance of about 190 meters (210 yards)—
the length of the straight sprint track. Other races were
multiples of this distance, ranging from about 7 to 24
stades. In practice, however, the standard of measurement differed from place to place and courses, therefore, differed considerably in distance.
Other premodern track racing is associated with
certain Native American nations. The Jicarilla, for example, had modest “running tracks” that were subject
to modest amounts of preparation. In the Osage nation
a 4-kilometer (2.5-mile) running track was constructed to keep warriors fit. A Crow running track is
recorded as being 5 kilometers (3.1 miles) long and
horseshoe-shaped.
The first running track in England was built at Lord’s
Cricket Ground in London in 1837—a narrow path for
two-man races, but faced with gravel and measured by
surveyors. More typical, however, were races held on
manicured grass surfaces. In mainland Europe and
North America, most running tracks were made of various combinations of cinders,clay,or shale.Certain tracks
developed the reputation of being faster than others.
The first synthetic running track was built in the
United States in 1950. Today, in the wealthier countries
of the world, it is estimated that over 90 percent of all
official track meets take place on such surfaces, which
have improved performance in all track events.
Before the invention of starting blocks, sprinters
used to dig small holes in the track in order to assist
them in getting a good start. The crouch start had existed in the late 19th century. Invented in 1927, starting
blocks were used in Chicago in 1929 and further improved performance.
Rules and Play
Track racing differs from other forms of racing (for example, cross country) in that it takes place on a specially prepared circuit.
Today’s championship races must take place on a
track of a particular synthetic composition that must
be 400 meters in circumference. To equalize the distances athletes run, races up to 400 meters are run in
lanes, and races 200 meters and 400 meters have staggered starts. In 800-meter races, the athletes usually
run the first turn in lanes to avoid the congestion that
might occur. Tracks for major competitions usually
have eight lanes marked out.
Despite these technological innovations, track athletics has not been able to fully neutralize the natural environment. Hence, 100-meter and 200-meter races accompanied by a following wind of more than 2.00 meters
per second are regarded as invalid for record purposes.
Other innovations in track racing have been the refinement in timekeeping and the use of drugs. Stopwatches have given way to electronic timing, events being timed to hundredths of a second. Photo-finish
electrical timekeeping has become the norm and today
often determines the result and the timing of track races.
Legends and Landmarks
Track running has tended to be the most glamorous
group of events in the overall track-and-field menu. At
different periods of time, particular events and individuals have dominated the world running stage. In the
1920s and 1930s, long-distance runners from Finland,
notably Paavo Nurmi, dominated the running scene. He
increased the amount of training beyond the conventional norm and ran with stopwatch in hand so that his
pace might be regulated in the most rational way.
During the 1940s the Swedes dominated middle-distance running with the presence of Gunder Hägg and
Arne Andersson. Hägg came close to breaking one of the
legendary barriers of track athletics, the four-minute
mile.However,it was not until 1954 that the Englishman,
Roger Bannister, achieved the performance that people
had dreamed of with his historic time of 3 minutes 59.4
seconds at the Oxford University running track at Iffley
Road. In the 1960s the middle distances were dominated
by athletes from Australia and New Zealand.
During the late 1980s and early 1990s, African runners have led in middle- and long-distance running.
The Kenyans and Ethiopians have been most prominent, but Morocco and Algeria are also contenders.
That Kenya and Ethiopia have been able to produce
such a long line of world-class distance runners has
shattered the myth that black athletes were “natural
sprinters” and could not achieve world-class performances over long distances.
The United States has traditionally dominated the
sprint events. Jesse Owens in the 1930s and Carl Lewis
in the 1980s caught the imagination of the world’s media. Jesse Owens is widely regarded as the world’s greatest sprinter ever. Owens is most renowned for winning
gold medals for the 100 meters, 200 meters, 4 x 100 meters, and a long jump event at the Olympic Games in
Berlin in 1936, all with Olympic records, at a time when
Adolf Hitler was preaching Aryan supremacy.
The Europeans have traditionally dominated
women’s sprint running, although in recent years the
balance of power has shifted somewhat to the United
States and Caribbean. In the postwar years, the power
of the eastern Europeans was displayed in many
events; in the early 1990s, the Chinese astounded the
world with a number of staggering performances, including the astonishing performance of Wang Junxia,
who became the first woman to break the half-hour for
10,000 meters with a time of 29 minutes 31.78 seconds.
The first man to break this barrier had been Taisto
Mäki of Finland in 1939.
That women might match men’s performances was
traditionally thought impossible, but the curves showing improved performances of men and women are inexorably converging. However, relatively few women
compete in track racing. The more women who compete, the greater the stimulus for better competition—
and hence improved performance.
Drug use is felt to be widespread, and the IAAF imposes bans on athletes who have been found to have
used certain “banned substances.” Among the best
known are anabolic steroids. The most famous drugtaker in track annals was probably Ben Johnson from
Canada who, having broken the 100-meter world
record in winning the Seoul Olympics with a time of
9.79 seconds, was found to have taken a banned drug,
stripped of his medal, and temporarily banned from
competition. When re-admitted to the sport he was
again found guilty of drug abuse.
Athletes are variously motivated to take part in
track. Some wish to demonstrate something about
themselves or to improve their personal best time.
They may run against the clock to break records or significant barriers such as the 4-minute mile or the 10-
second 100 meters, to beat a particular rival or win a
medal. Finally, and increasingly, athletes may race to
make money.
—JOHN BALE
Bibliography: Baker, William J. (1986) Jesse Owens: An
American Life. New York: Free Press. Bale, John, and Joe
Sang. (1996) Kenyan Running: Movement Culture, Geography and Global Change. London: Frank Cass. Nabokov,
Paul. (1981) Indian Running. Santa Fe, NM: Ancient City
Press. Quercetani, Roberto L. (1990) Athletics: A History
of Modern Track and Field Athletics. Milan: Vallardi and
Associates.