Beliefs and practices related to prediction, interpretation, and control of the weather.
Most weather beliefs focus on signs of things to come, but many indicate magical causes
and effects. Proverbs, tales, legends, rituals, and material culture extend the scope of
weatherlore, which has regional variations but often covers large segments of the United
States.
By far the largest corpus of weather customs and beliefs has to do with rain, a crucial
ingredient in the growing of crops. People have scrutinized the sun, the moon, the stars,
the sky, animals, birds, and insects to figure out when rain will come. For example,
Illinois folklore states that a solar halo may indicate rain before night; a sun dog (parhelic
halo) north of the sun means rain from the northwest, while a sun dog south of the sun
means rain from the southwest. After an eclipse of the sun, one can expect five full days
of rain. From New York folklore comes a proverb familiar to many Americans: “When
there’s a ring around the moon, rain is coming soon.” A moon that has changed during
the night may presage a wet season. Stars can also give clues about rain, as in this New
York proverb about an upside-down Big Dipper: “If the stars are in a huddle, the world
will be in a puddle.” African American folklore states that if a circle around the moon
encloses three stars, there will be rain in less than three days.
Colors of the sky and patterns of clouds are frequent indicators of rain. One popular
mariners’ proverb, also known by farmers, explains, “Red sky at night, sailors’ delight.
Red sky at morning, sailors take warning.” Red skies generally signal rain, unless they
follow gray. In New England tradition, a greenish tinge near the horizon means that rain
will come soon, while a purple haze indicates a return to fine weather. Cloud patterns
such as a “mackerel sky” (clouds in parallel bands) are widely recognized as rain
indicators: “Mackerel sky, mackerel sky, three days wet and three days dry.”
Animals, birds, and insects have a prominent role as weather forecasters throughout
the United States. People say that cows will lie down, dogs and cats will become agitated,
and ants will scurry to shelter as rain approaches. Seagulls will fly inland as a rainstorm
builds; fish will begin to bite more readily, and bees or flies will sting harder. Even
flowers can foretell rain’s approach by the opening and closing of their buds.
Since flora and fauna can forecast rain, it is not surprising that people also can do this
under certain circumstances. Rheumatism or a broken bone can make a person feel
twinges before a rainstorm. Other sensations that presage rain include pains in corns,
ringing in the ear, and a “lazy feeling.” Itching on the heel or sole of the foot can mean
either rain or snow; more specifically, if the nose itches diree times in an hour, rain will
come within twenty-four hours. An Illinois proverb states, “Curls that kink and cords that
bind, sing of rain and heavy wind” (Hyatt 1965:30). Some people think that the elderly
are better forecasters, because old bones feel rain more acutely than young ones.
Deliberate efforts to bring rain are fairly prominent in American folklore. The oldest
practices come from Native American lore. For example, the Hopi snake-antelope dance
calls upon the well-known power of snakes to invoke rain. Dancers wash the snakes in
yucca suds, then release them toward the north, south, east, and west. Snake dances and
other kinds of rain dances have occurred among numerous Native American peoples.
Cross-culturally, snakes and other reptiles have a strong connection to rainmaking.
According to both African American and general American folklore, one can bring rain
by turning a dead snake belly-up or hanging it on a fence.
In the late 19th century in Nebraska, professional “rainmakers” sought to earn their
pay by firing explosions from balloons, building large, smoky fires, or setting off
gunpowder explosions from high peaks. More recent and lighthearted formulas for
bringing rain include forgetting to carry an umbrella, opening an umbrella in the house,
stopping a swing by dragging one’s feet, and (probably most popular of all) washing and
waxing a car. Those who want to prevent rain may follow the Illinois adage, “Preparation for rain
scares it away” (Hyatt 1965:32). One way to stop rain from coming is to turn upside
down all buckets and other receptacles that are out in the yard. To keep rain from spoiling
a picnic, some try to “fool” the weather by making no plans until the day the picnic will
occur. In spite of people’s best efforts, July 4 is likely to be rainy because—according to
popular belief—ammunition and fireworks bring rain down from the sky.
On certain ceremonial occasions, rain has the onus of causing bad luck. A rainy
wedding day may be a bad omen for the newly married pair; in North Carolina, rain (or
snow) on the wedding day means that the groom will die first. On the other hand, some
newlyweds who have married on rainy days have contended that rain brings especially
good luck. Since rain is helpful for farmers, it may bring good things for the young
couple. Nonetheless, rain on the traditional day for sweethearts, Valentine’s Day, is a
sign of trouble on the farm: Hens will stop laying.
Next to the many signs and results of rain, indicators of the onset and severity of
winter fill the annals of American weatherlore. Animals and birds can tell us if a winter
will be harsh: Caterpillars will become very fuzzy; cats, dogs, foxes, and skunks will
grow heavy coats; turkeys will roost high in a tree; and hogs will run around widi straws
in their mouths. In New England, oysters will burrow deep into their beds in the ocean. A
popular New York proverb predicts winter s development: “As the days begin to
lengthen, the cold begins to strengthen.” Concern about heavy snow and fog (“A January
fog will freeze a hog”) emerges from folklore of the Northeast. Magic for stopping snow
is somewhat rare; however, a Texas custom calls for striking a sputtering log in the
fireplace to dislodge gas, break the spell of winter, and make the snow stop falling
(Hendricks 1980:146).
Folklore across the United States chronicles many positive effects of winter. In North
Carolina, a snowy winter means a good crop year, because the land is wet and insects are
not numerous. Similarly, in Illinois snow at Christmas and wind on New Year s Day
bring fruit in profusion. A “white Christmas” means health in New England: “When
Christmas is white, the graveyard is lean; but fat is the graveyard when Christmas is
green” (Botkin 1947:633).
Even though snow has these beneficial effects, people watch eagerly for signs of
winter coming to a close. Groundhog Day or Candlemas Day, February 2, is the day
when a groundhog, badger, or bear can foretell winter’s end. If willows bud early and
ducks lay ahead of schedule, one can expect winter to end early. And if a person sees
baby squirrels in open nests in late February, an early spring is almost certam to arrive.
Since the 1950s, when the neopagan movement gathered force in England and North
America, some individuals who identify themselves as neopagans or witches have
accepted responsibility for causing severe winter weather, rainstorms, and winds. Using
spells that date back to medieval European magic, neopagans have claimed to bring about
dramatic weather changes, including blizzards and hurricanes. One medieval spell used in
the 1990s involves knotting a cord while facing in a certain direction and whistling or
spitting for wind or rain. When the spell setter releases the knots, the preset weather will
come forth to surprise local inhabitants.
Just as medieval lore has influenced neopagan weather spells, ancient mariners’
beliefs have had an impact upon relatively recent folklore of the sea. There are many
stories and customs about buying the wind: throwing a nickel, a dime, or a quarter
overboard to purchase a breeze for a sailing ship or small boat. This practice originates
from efforts to buy the wind through human sacrifice in ancient times. One Texas
narrative tells of a man who, in his greed for favorable weather, bought a dollars worth of
wind. His boat capsized, and his wife and children drowned (Mullin 1978:35–40).
Folklore about tornadoes, mainly from the Midwest and the Southwest, has to do with
both prediction and prevention. Midwesterners say that a sky with a sickly, greenish cast
tells you that a tornado is coming; Texans predict that a tornado follows the first thunder
after the last snow. Those intrepid enough to try to deflect a tornado can turn it in another
direction by driving a double-bit ax into the top of a stump, with the ax handle pointing in
the direction desired. Deflection may not be necessary, though, if one relies on the belief
that a tornado cannot strike a town located in a valley or between mountains or hills
(Hendricks 1980:147).
Like tornadoes, lightning is something to deflect or avoid. “Lightning never strikes
twice in the same place,” a well-known proverb, helps to explain why people sometimes
hide under burnt trees or logs. Methods for warding off lightning in Illinois include
throwing an ax into the yard and burning blessed palm leaves. In Texas, people may
cover mirrors and cross their suspenders. Some Americans believe that unplugging dieir
television sets and wearing rubber shoes will decrease their chances of having lightning
strike their homes. Lightning has connotations of divine punishment and diabolical
presence, as in the African American belief that if lightning strikes while a man is dying,
the devil has come for his soul. Some Native Americans on the North Pacific Coast have
explained lightning as a flash of theThunderbird’s eye; others have perceived lightning as
Thunder’s wife or younger brother.
The precursor of lightning, thunder has many colorful explanations. Texans say
thunder is the result of the devil’s potato wagon turning over, while Native Americans on
the North Pacific Coast say it comes from Thunderbirds flapping their wings or striking
trees. Pueblo Native Americans sometimes call thunder by rolling two stone balls in front
of a meal altar in their kiva. There are two Cherokee thunder boys, Tame Boy and Wild
Boy. Some American children enjoy baking a “thundercake” when they first hear thunder
and starting to eat it when the storm breaks (if the storm allows enough time for baking).
In addition to the rich array of verbal folklore, material culture shows a strong
orientation toward the weather. Weathervanes featuring horses, arrows, and other figures
are very popular. In Pennsylvania Dutch country, hex signs depict raindrops,
thunderbolts, and other symbols of weather, either to propitiate or prevent. Even though
meteorological science has taken over the official forecasting of American weather,
folklore still offers a significant way for people to seek understanding and control of
phenomena that often seem to defy rational analysis.
Elizabeth Tucker
References
Botkin, Ben A. 1947. A Treasury of New England Folklore. New York: Crown, pp. 630–635.
Brewer, J.Mason. 1968. American Negro Folklore. Chicago: Quadrangle Books, pp. 303–305.
Cutting, Edith. 1952. Whistling Girls and Jumping Sheep. Cooperstown: Farmer’s Museum and
New York Folklore Society, pp. 29–46.
Dorson, Richard M. 1964. Buyingthe Wind: Regional Folklore in the U.S. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, pp. 122–124.
Hand, Wayland D., ed. 1964. The Frank C Brown Collection of North Carolina Folklore. Vol. 7.
Durham, NC: Duke University Press, pp. 209–371, 510–511, 542, 577.
Hendricks, George D. 1980. Roosters, Rhymes, and Railroad Tracks. Dallas: Southern Methodist
University Press, pp. 140–148.
Hyatt, Harry M. 1965. Folklore from Adams County Illinois. Hannibal, MO: Western Printing and
Lithographing, PP. 1–35.
Mullin, Patrick B. 1978. I Heard the Old Fishermen Say: Folklore of the Texas Gulf Coast. Austin:
University of Texas Press, pp. 35–40.
Pound, Louise. 1959. Nebraska Folklore. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, pp. 41–60